The Lower Canada Rebellion (source: www.wikipedia.org)
The Lower Canada Rebellion is the name given to the armed conflict between the rebels of Lower Canada (now Quebec) and the British colonial power of that province. Together with the simultaneous Upper Canada Rebellion in the neighbouring colony of Upper Canada (now Ontario), it formed the Rebellions of 1837.
Leaders of the Lower Canada Rebellion:
Thomas Storrow Brown (1803-1888)
Jean-Olivier Chénier (1806-1837)
Dr. Cyrille Côté (1809-1850)
Amury Girod (1800-1837)
Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan (1797-1880)
Robert Nelson (1794-1873)
Wolfred Nelson (1791-1863)
Louis-Joseph Papineau (1786-1871)
The rebellion of Lower Canada continued in 1838 and is often called Les rébellions de 1837-38 in Quebec. The actions of the rebels resulted in the declaration of martial law and a first armed conflict occurred in 1837 when the 26 members of the Patriote movement who had been charged with illegal activities chose to resist their arrest by the authorities under the direction of John Colborne. In 1838, two major armed conflicts occurred when groups of Lower Canadian Patriotes led by Robert Nelson crossed the American border in an attempt to invade Lower Canada and Upper Canada, drive the British army out and establish independent republics.
These events are often misreported, which moves the attention away from three decades of political battles between the Parti patriote of James Stuart and Louis-Joseph Papineau, which was seeking responsible government for the colony, and the unelected British Executive and Legislative Councils in the former French colony, which were dominated by a small group of mainly businessmen known as the Château Clique, the equivalent of the Family Compact in Upper Canada.
The movement for reform took shape in a period of economic disenfranchisement of the French-speaking majority and working class English speaking citizens. However, the rebellion was not about language but centered on the unfairness of colonial governing as such, many of the leaders and participants were English-speaking citizens of Lower Canada. In banking, the timber trade, and transportation, Anglophones were seen as disproportionately represented. However, the Roman Catholic church discouraged French-Canadians from commercial activities, asserting it was God's will that they remain an agrarian society. (Out of 775 identified rebels from Lower Canada, 388 were farmers.) At the same time, some among the Anglophone business elite were advocating for a union of Upper and Lower Canada in order to ensure competitiveness on a national scale with the increasingly large and powerful economy of the United States. The unification of the colony was a plan favoured by the British-appointed governor, George Ramsey, Earl of Dalhousie. The reaction was a growing sense of nationalism among English and the French-speaking citizens, which solidified into the Parti canadien. (After 1826 called the Parti patriote.)
In 1811, James Stuart became leader of the Parti canadien in the assembly and in 1815, reformer Louis-Joseph Papineau was elected Assembly speaker. The Assembly, while elected, had little power; its decisions could be vetoed by a legislative council and the governor appointed by the British government. Dalhousie and Papineau were soon at odds over the issue of uniting the Canadas, and Dalhousie forced an election in 1827 rather than accept Papineau as speaker. Sympathizers to the reform movement in England had Dalhousie forced from his position and reappointed to India. Still, the legislative council and the assembly were not able to reach a compromise, and by 1834, the assembly had passed the Ninety-Two Resolutions, outlining its grievances against the legislative council. At that point, the Patriote movement was supported by an overwhelming majority of the population in all origins.
Later in 1834 the Parti Patriote swept the election with more than three-quarters of the popular vote. However, the reformers in Lower Canada were divided over several issues. A moderate reformer named John Neilson had quit the party in 1830 and joined the Constitutional Association 4 years later. Papineau's anti-clerical position alienated reformers in the Catholic Church, and his support for secular rather than religious schools made him a powerful enemy in Bishop Jean-Jacques Lartigue. Lartigue called on all Catholics to reject the reform movement and support the authorities, forcing many to choose between their religion and their political convictions.
However, Papineau continued to push for reform. He petitioned the British government to bring about reform, but in March of 1837 the government of Lord Melbourne rejected all of Papineau's requests. Papineau then organized protests and assemblies, and eventually approved the paramilitary Société des Fils de la Liberté during the Assemblée des Six-Comtés.
Papineau escaped to the United States, but the rebels set themselves up in the countryside, and, led by Wolfred Nelson defeated a British force at Saint-Denis on November 23. However, the British troops soon beat back the rebels, defeating them at Saint-Charles on November 25 and at Saint-Eustache on December 14. Saint-Eustache was then pillaged and ransacked. On December 5th, martial law was declared in Montréal.
When news of the arrest of the Patriote leaders reached Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie launched an armed rebellion in December of 1837. While this revolt was quickly put down, the rebellion in Lower Canada continued into the following year. Leaders who had escaped across the border into the United States raided Lower Canada in February of 1838, and a second revolt began at Beauharnois in November of the same year. This too was crushed by the British.
Meanwhile, Britain had dispatched Lord Durham to investigate the cause of the rebellion. His report recommended that the Canadas be united into one colony (the Province of Canada) so as to assimilate the French-speaking Canadiens into the culture of the British Empire. However, he recommended acceding to the rebels' grievances by granting responsible government to the new colony.
The rebellion of the Patriotes Canadiens of Lower Canada is often seen as the example of what might have happened to the United States of America if the American Revolutionary War had failed. Following the military defeat of the Patriotes, Lower Canada was merged with Upper Canada under the Union Act and the Canadiens became a minority in the new political entity. Eight years after the Union, a responsible government was set up in the united Province of Canada. The great instability of this new regime (see Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada) eventually led to the formation of the Great coalition, and another major constitutional change, the Canadian Confederation of 1867.
In Quebec, the rebellion is commemorated as the Journée nationale des patriotes (Patriots Day) by the use of the Canadian Statutory Holiday, Victoria Day.
Originally posted by darvlayTheRed River Rebellion
Shall we continue on to the Red River Rebellion of 1869?
During the late 1860s, the Red River Settlement was experiencing rapid change. The population had been historically composed mainly of Francophone (Michif-speaking) Métis, along with a minority of English-speaking mixed-bloods known as the "Country born" (Anglo-Metis), and a small number of Presbyterian Scottish settlers. However, the colony was seeing a rapid influx of Anglophone Protestants from Ontario. These new settlers were largely insensitive to Métis culture and hostile to Roman Catholicism, and many were advocates of Canadian expansionism. There was also an influx at this time of Americans in favour of annexation by the United States.
Against this backdrop of religious, nationalistic, and racial tension, there existed significant political uncertainty. Largely to forestall American expansionism, the British and Canadian governments had been for some time negotiating the transfer of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada. This resulted in the Rupert's Land Act of 1868 authorizing the transfer, and the subsequent purchase by Canada in 1869. However, the terms under which political authority would be transferred remained unresolved.
In anticipation of the transfer, the minister of public works, William McDougall, who along with George-Étienne Cartier had been instrumental in securing Rupert's Land for Canada, ordered a survey party to the Red River Settlement. This was undertaken despite warnings to the John A. Macdonald government from Roman Catholic Bishop Taché, the Anglican bishop of Rupert's land Robert Machray, and the HBC governor of Assiniboia William Mactavish, that any such survey would precipitate unrest. In the event, the survey party, headed by Colonel John Stoughton Dennis arrived at Fort Garry on August 20, 1869. This aroused significant anxiety among the Métis, as many did not possess clear title to their land, which was in any case laid out according to the Seigneurial system with long, narrow lots fronting the river, rather than the square lots preferred by the English. The survey was an obvious harbinger of a coming wave of Canadian migration, and was correctly perceived as a threat to the Métis way of life — they feared they could lose their farms, and that their language and Roman Catholic religion would face increasing marginalisation and discrimination.
Riel emerges as a leader
The fears of the Métis were exacerbated when the Canadian government appointed the notoriously anti-French McDougall as the lieutenant governor-designate on 28 September 1869, in anticipation of a formal transfer to take effect on December 1. It was at this time that the educated Riel began to emerge as a leader, beginning with his denunciation of the survey in a speech delivered in late August from the steps of the Saint-Boniface Cathedral. On October 11, 1869, the work of the survey was disrupted by a group of Métis including Riel. On October 16 this group organised itself as the "Métis National Committee", with Riel as secretary, John Bruce as president and two representatives from each parish, to represent Métis interests.
At this time, the Hudson's Bay Company's Council of Assiniboia still asserted authority over the area, and on October 25, Riel was summoned before them to explain the actions of the Committee. Riel declared that any attempt by McDougall to enter would be blocked unless the Canadians had first negotiated terms with the Métis and with the general population of the settlement.
On November 2, Métis under the command of Ambroise-Dydime Lépine turned back McDougall's party near the American border, forcing them to retreat to Pembina, North Dakota. The number of Riel's followers had grown rapidly, and on that same day a group of up to 400 Métis led by Riel seized Fort Garry without bloodshed.
Considerable differences remained at the Red River Settlement over how to negotiate with Canada, and in particular, no consensus had been reached between the French and English speaking inhabitants. In a conciliatory gesture, Riel on November 6 asked the anglophones to select delegates from each of their parishes to attend a convention alongside the Métis representatives. The first such meeting resulted in few accomplishments, and some of the anglophone delegates expressed displeasure at Riel's treatment of McDougall.
On November 16, the Council of Assiniboia made a final attempt to assert its authority when Governor Mactavish issued a proclamation demanding that the Métis lay down their arms. However the Métis had no reason to believe that the council would safeguard their interests. This prompted Riel on November 23 to propose the formation of a provisional government to enter direct negotiations with Canada, but this was not accepted by the anglophone delegates, who requested an adjournment to discuss matters.
On December 1, McDougall proclaimed that the Hudson's Bay Company was no longer in control of Rupert's Land, and that he was the new lieutenant-governor. This proclamation was to later prove problematic, as it effectively ended the authority of the Council, while failing to establish Canadian authority — unbeknownst to McDougall, the transfer had been postponed once news of the unrest reached Ottawa. On the same day, Riel presented to the convention a list of fourteen rights that were demanded as a condition of union. The demands included representation in parliament, a bilingual legislature, a bilingual chief justice, and recognition of certain land claims. While the convention did not then adopt the list, its demands were subsequently accepted as reasonable by the majority of anglophones once the contents became generally known.
Even while much of the settlement was coming to accept the Métis point of view, resistance was building among a passionately pro-Canadian minority, loosely organised as the Canadian Party, led by Dr. John Christian Schultz and Charles Mair, and supported by Colonel Dennis, and the more reticent Major Charles Boulton. The situation escalated when McDougall attempted to assert his authority by appointing Dennis to raise a contingent of armed men, which were to arrest the Métis occupying Upper Fort Garry. The anglophone settlers largely ignored this call to arms, and Dennis withdrew to Lower Fort Garry. Schultz, however, was emboldened to fortify his house and store, and attracted approximately fifty recruits. Riel took this threat seriously, and ordered Schultz's home surrounded. Hopelessly outnumbered, the Canadians surrendered on December 7 and were imprisoned in Fort Garry. Given the unrest and absence of a clear authority, The Métis National Committee had little choice but to declare a provisional government, and did so on December 8. Having finally received notification of the delay in transfer, McDougall and Dennis departed for Ontario on 18 December, and Major Boulton fled to Portage la Prairie.
Meanwhile in Ottawa, the Governor General Lord Lisgar had, at Macdonald's behest, proclaimed an amnesty on December 6 for all in Red River who would lay down their arms, and dispatched the Abbé Jean-Baptiste Thibault and Charles-René d’Irumberry de Salaberry on a mission of reconciliation. However these emissaries were not granted any special authority to negotiate on behalf of the Government. Macdonald also appointed Hudson's Bay representative Donald Alexander Smith as special commissioner with greater authority to negotiate.
On December 27, John Bruce resigned as president of the provisional government, and Riel was elected president. On this same day Donald Smith arrived in the settlement, followed shortly thereafter by de Salaberry, joining Thibault, who had arrived on Christmas day. An inconclusive meeting occurred on January 5, 1870 between Riel, de Salaberry, and Thibault, followed by another between Riel and Smith the following day. At this time Smith concluded that negotiation with the committee would be fruitless, and intrigued to present the Canadian position in the context of a public meeting. Meetings were held on January 19 and January 20, and with Riel acting as translator, Smith assured the large audiences of the Canadian government's goodwill, intention to grant representation, and willingness to extend concessions with respect to land claims. With the settlement now solidly behind him, Riel proposed the formation of a new convention of forty representatives, split evenly between French and English settlers, to consider Smith's instructions. This was accepted, and upon their recommendation a committee of six outlined a more comprehensive list of rights, which was accepted by the convention on February 3. Following meetings on February 7 wherein the new list of rights were presented to Thibault, de Salaberry, and Smith, Smith proposed that a delegation be sent to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiations with Canada, a suggestion eagerly accepted by Riel. At this time Riel also proposed that the provisional government should be reformed so as to be more inclusive of both language groups. A constitution enshrining these goals was accepted by the convention on February 10, leading to the establishment of an elected assembly consisting of twelve representatives from anglophone parishes and 12 representatives from francophone parishes.
Canadian resistance and the execution of Scott
Despite the apparent progress on the political front and the inclusion of Anglophones within the provisional government, the Canadian contingent was not yet silenced, for on January 9 there was a mass escape from the prison at Fort Garry. Charles Mair, Thomas Scott, and ten others escaped. This was followed on January 23 by the escape of John Schultz. In any case, Riel had by February 15 freed the remaining prisoners after obtaining assurances that they would refrain from engaging in political agitation. However, Schultz, Mair, and Scott had every intention of f...
Originally posted by Red NightThe Battle of The Plains of Abraham
Montcalm and Wolfe
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, fought September 13, 1759, was a decisive battle of the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War (a theatre known in the United States as the French and Indian War). It was fought on a plateau just outside the city walls of Quebec City in New France, on the land of Abraham Martin dit L'Écossais. Combat lasted only 30 minutes, ending a three-month siege of Quebec City.
Prelude: Siege of Quebec
The battle was actually the culmination of a siege that began on June 26 when the British landed on Île d'Orléans in the St. Lawrence River. The British fleet under Admiral Charles Saunders had sailed from Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, which they had captured in 1758. The fleet consisted of 49 ships with 1,944 guns and 13,500 sailors, as well as 140 smaller craft to land General James Wolfe's force of 8,640 British troops (7,030 British regulars, 1,280 Americans, and 330 artillery). An attempt to land 4,000 men on the north side of the river at the Montmorency Falls east of the city on July 31 failed: French General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm-Gozon, Marquis of Montcalm inflicted 440 casualties while his forces suffered only 60.
Throughout July and August Saunders' fleet sailed up and down the St. Lawrence, surveying the river for possible landing spots. The French, whose naval forces consisted of only 1,460 men, sent fire ships against the British, but could otherwise offer little resistance. James Cook, later a captain and explorer of the Pacific, was one of the cartographers surveying the river. The fleet also burned farms, forts, and supply depots, although the British did not take control of the entire river and left the French supply routes open. There were very little supplies to be had, however, as the British navy was successfully blockading the ports in France and controlled the entrance to the Saint Lawrence. On September 10 Wolfe chose Anse-aux-Foulons as a landing spot. Anse-aux-Foulons was at the bottom of the 53-metre high cliff on which Quebec sits, and was protected by cannons above. However, it was not the landing site Montcalm expected, and was much less well-defended than the other possible sites. Wolfe had French-speaking soldiers reply to the sentries on the shore, making the French believe the landing craft were actually a convoy of supply boats from upstream.
Plains of Abraham
Montcalm had 13,390 troops and militia available in Quebec City and Beauport a few kilometres away, as well as 200 cavalry, 200 artillery, 300 natives (among which were upper Great Lakes Outaouais warriors following Charles de Langlade), and 140 Acadian volunteers. This was about one quarter of the entire population of New France, but a significant portion of these forces was made up of inexperienced militia, whereas most of the British force had fought in the American colonies earlier in the Seven Years' War. About 100 French Canadien militia defended the top of the cliff above Anse au Foulon, but 385 British troops were able to scale the cliff and capture the cannons and the militia's camp. By September 13 almost 5,000 British had made it up the cliff to the plains. Throughout the length of the siege the British had suffered 270 deaths and 1,220 wounded; French casualties prior to the battle are unknown, but the British bombardment of the town, from ships and batteries set at Sainte-Petronille and Lévis, had been severe. To this day there is a tree in Quebec city with a cannonball lodged in it, which is reputed to have come from this bombardment.
On the morning of the 13th, Wolfe assembled 4,800 of his men on the Plains of Abraham outside Quebec City while Saunders massed the fleet near Beauport. Montcalm could have refused to meet them on the field (as his advisers suggested), and his decision to leave the fortified town and engage the British on the battlefield has often been viewed as a mistake; his fear was that of British entrenchment. He also did not bring out his entire force, but only about 4,000 men, a slightly smaller force than that of the British, leaving the other half of his army on the Beauport shoreline, under the orders of his frequent rival the Marquis de Vaudreuil, Governor-General of New France, in case the attack on the Plains of Abraham turned out to be a diversion.
In order to cover the entire width of the plateau east of the town, Wolfe had set his ranks two-men deep. Unknown to Montcalm, the 1,500 elite troops under his faithful subordinate Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, who had been successfully guarding the northern shoreline up-river from Québec all summer long, had frantically rallied and were soon to arrive just east of the battlefield on the British rear. Uncharacteristically however, the usually careful and methodical Montcalm did not wait. In Montcalm's initial assault his troops fired at 400 metres, having little effect on the British troops. General Wolfe however was struck by several musket balls, one in the chest. He died as the battle was ending, the British victorious. The French were quickly turned back with horrible casualties as the British fired at close range, having waited until only about 40 metres separated the lines to fire and having loaded two balls in each musket, an attack which was described as "The most beautiful volley in the history of warfare". Compounding the British blow was the chaos that ensued in the French ranks as the ducking of militiamen caused regular troops to perceive losses as being far greater than they actually were. Subsequent charges were disorganised and easily picked off by the British; the contingent of Highlanders, leading a bayonet and sword charge, proved especially ruthless on the routed French. They were, however, repulsed by significant fire given by the Indian and Canadian Militia forces in the trees on the British flank. It was these forces who inflicted the majority of the British casualties. Montcalm ordered a retreat back into the city, during which he too was fatally wounded. He staggered through the gates of Quebec in obvious pain, but is reputed to have assured onlookers that the wound was nothing. He died early the next morning.
Aftermath
Both sides suffered almost the same number of casualties: 658 British and 644 French. After defeating Montcalm outside the city, the British turned to face Bougainville's forces, now vastly outnumbered, and forced him to make an orderly retreat to Charlesbourg. There Bougainville met up with Vaudreuil who had hastily deserted the Beauport shoreline on news of Montcalm's defeat. The British, now under the orders of General Murray, began to besiege Quebec itself, in conjunction with Saunders' fleet below in the river. The garrison in Quebec, under the orders of De Ramezay, surrendered on September 18 (See the Articles of Capitulation) just as Bougainville was about to attempt a charge through British lines to resupply the besieged city. On September 24 Bougainville withdrew to a position on the Jacques-Cartier River east of the city.
Having cleared the last remaining French obstacle to the British navy on the St. Lawrence River, the battle of Québec essentially opened up all of New France to British control. In 1760 the British completed the conquest by capturing Montreal, but not before the Battle of Sainte-Foy had given the French one final taste of victory. The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1763 to end the war and the government of France chose to keep Guadaloupe, a rich Caribbean island, instead of Canada, a less profitable and underpopulated colony. Choiseul, the French minister, knew that Quebec could not be defended and that resentment was growing in America. Ultimately, taking Quebec may have been one of the causes of the American Revolution.
Originally posted by darvlayExcellent site on Canadian History, Davlay.
[b]The Battle of The Plains of Abraham
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham, fought September 13, 1759, was a decisive battle of the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War (a theatre known in the United States as the French and Indian War). It was fought on a plateau just outside the city walls of Quebec City in New France, on the land of Abrah ...[text shortened]... timately, taking Quebec may have been one of the causes of the American Revolution.[/b]
I'll rec you again.
Originally posted by darvlayso? doesn't mean you should ask for them. people shoot newbies down for vaguely subtle rec-hunting, why should we condone an old hand for completly un-subtle rec-hunting?
Like I need to hunt for recs. I've got twelve hundred of them without ever asking for one.
Pop quiz, hotshot: Who is the longest serving Canadian Prime Minister?
do you mean longest serving in one stint, or counting up all the years? Mackenzie King for overall (22), while Wilfrid Laurier had 15 on the trot.
why yes, i did use google. 🙂
Originally posted by geniusFine, here. Have a bloody rec. Now quit beggin me, I have a class to teach.
so? doesn't mean you should ask for them. people shoot newbies down for vaguely subtle rec-hunting, why should we condone an old hand for completly un-subtle rec-hunting?
do you mean longest serving in one stint, or counting up all the years? Mackenzie King for overall (22), while Wilfrid Laurier had 15 on the trot.
why yes, i did use google. 🙂
*Wanders back to wiki...*