In light of recent discussions of Satan in these threads, I thought I would do some research into the word—and the concept(s) behind it—in the Hebrew Scriptures (the Tanach). The Hebrew word shatan—which often carries the definite article, ha shatan—can be translated as accuser, adversary, opponent. Outside the book of Job, Satan doesn’t seem play much of a role in the Hebrew Scriptures.
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Satan in the Hebrew Scriptures
There are 18 mentions of Satan qua Satan in the Hebrew Scriptures (NRSV), all but three of them in the first two chapters of Job, where Satan acts against Job with God’s consent, in order to test Job’s righteousness.
In First Chronicles 21:1 it says: “Satan stood up against Israel, and incited David to count the people of Israel.” This is interesting, because in 2 Samuel 24:1, in what appears to be a reference to the same event, it says: “Again the anger of YHVH was kindled against Israel, and he incited David against them, saying, "Go, count the people of Israel and Judah.” (my italics) According to my one study Bible, “Samuel and Kings served as the major source for the Chronicler, though his copy of these books differed in significant ways from the text as we now have it in the Hebrew Bible.” (The Harper-Collins Study Bible, New Revised Standard Version)
The other two references are in Zechariah 3:1 & 2. In this case, Satan stands as the “accuser” (as shatan here is translated by the Jewish Publication Society (JPS, 1985)* of Joshua the priest. An angel of YHVH rebukes Satan before he can even speak an accusation against Joshua.
The Hebrew word shatan appears as “adversary” in the following 8 verses. In most cases, the reference is to a human adversary.
Num. 22:22—an angel of YHVH stands in Balaam’s way as an adversary.
Num. 22:32—same angel as verse 22.
1 Sam. 29:4—the Philistines want to send David away lest he become an adversary to them.
2 Sam. 19:22—David, referring to the sons of Zeruiah.
1 Ki. 5:4—Solomon in a time of peace, facing “neither adversary nor misfortune.”
1 Ki. 11:14—Hadad the Edomite, raised up by YHVH as an adversary to Solomon.
1 Ki. 11:23—Rezon, son of Eliada, raised up as adversary to Solomon.
1 Ki. 11:25—Rezon again.
Other Hebrew words are sometimes translated as adversary, foe or opponent.
In psalm 109:6, shatan is translated as “accuser;” in verses 20 and 29 it is plural shat’nai: “accusers.” In psalm 71:13, the plural also appears.
All in all, shatan appears in the Hebrew Scriptures about 30 times; in about 12 of those cases, it refers to a human adversary; twice it is the role assumed by an angel of YHVH; and once it appears to be an editing replacement for the anger of YHVH. [The search was done in NRSV, and there may be a slightly different number in another translation—i.e., I might have missed another word that is used to translate shatan.]
Satan appears 35 times in the NT.
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The Case of “Lucifer”
Lucifer (or “day star” ) appears in the Tanach once, but I do not think it refers to Satan.
Isaiah 14:12. How you are fallen from heaven, O Day Star, son of Dawn! How you are cut down to the ground, you who laid the nations low! (NRSV)
Heilel, here translated as “Day Star,” and as “Lucifer” in the KJV, means brightness (from halal, to shine, to be bright or splendid) and apparently could refer to Venus, the day or morning “star.” The Hebrew word is related to halel, which means to praise (as in halelu Yah!), to celebrate, to cause to shine, to make light; with different vowel-pointing, the same root can mean to be foolish, insolent or mad, to rave.
Since the poem in Isaiah in which the reference appears is a “song of scorn over the king of Babylon” (JPS), the most straightforward interpretation is that that is to whom the poetic reference applies. It is in later traditions that the “Day Star” becomes conflated with Satan as a fallen angel.
Similarly, the serpent in the Garden of Eden story.
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Other “Devil” Words
The word devil does not appear in the Tanach, but appears 36 times in the NT. The word demon does not appear in the Tanach (but demons, plural, does twice); demon appears 21 times, and demons 28 times in the NT. Since the writers of the NT books were mostly Jews, I think this greater emphasis on the demonic is likely either simply a sign of the times, or due to hellenistic influences; that is, I doubt that it reflected strictly the worldview of those people who came to be called Christians.
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The role of Satan (ha shatan, the adversary) seems to be multivariate and ambiguous, and not very prominent, in the Hebrew Scriptures, and seems to have developed late as the personification of evil. There are no references to Satan worship. In the Talmud, Satan seems to be generally a symbol for the yetzer ha’ra, the “evil impulse” in human beings, as contrasted to the yetzer ha’tov, the impulse for good. We must all wrestle with our own yetzers.
* Jewish Publication Society, Tanach: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures According to the Traditional Hebrew Text.