A viable thread

Internet Relay Chat flood
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Crapflooding)
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This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (January 2012)

Flooding or scrolling on an IRC network is a method of disconnecting users from an IRC server (a form of Denial of Service), exhausting bandwidth which causes network latency ('lag'😉, or just annoying users. Floods can either be done by scripts (written for a given client) or by external programs.

It is possible to flood a client off the network simply by sending them data faster than they can receive it and thus cause a quit with the "max sendq exceeded" message, but this is generally only feasible if the user's connection is already slow/lagging and/or the attacker has a very large number of connections to the IRC network. Therefore, more common flooding techniques are based on the fact that the maximum number of messages that can be sent in a specified interval is controlled on the IRC server. Once this value is exceeded messages are stored in a buffer and delayed. If the buffer is filled the client is disconnected with an "Excess Flood" quit message. By sending messages that request an automated reply some IRC clients can be forced to flood themselves off.

Contents

1 Types of floods
2 Clones
3 Flood protection
3.1 Firewalls
3.2 Server-side
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links

Types of floods
A post flood on an IRC channel, repeating the term "OMG" several hundred times

Connect flood
Connecting and disconnecting from a channel as fast as possible, therefore spamming the channel with dis/connect messages also called q/j flooding.

Crapflood
This is the simplest type of IRC flooding. It involves posting large amounts of posts or one very long post with repetitive text. This type of flood can be achieved, for example, by copying and pasting one short word repeatedly.

CTCP flood
Since CTCP is implemented in almost every client, most users respond to CTCP requests. By sending too many requests, after a couple of answers they get disconnected from the IRC server. The most widely used type is CTCP PING, although most clients also implement other CTCP replies.

DCC flood
Initiating many DCC requests simultaneously. Theoretically it can also be used to disconnect users, because the target client sends information back about what port is intended to be used during the DCC session.

ICMP flood
Typically referred to as a ping flood. This attack overloads the victim's internet connection with an amount of ICMP data exceeding the connection's capacity, potentially causing a disconnection from the IRC network. For the duration of the attack, the user's internet connection remains hindered. Technically speaking, this is not an IRC flood, as the attack itself doesn't traverse the IRC network at all, but operates entirely independent of anything but the raw internet connection and its IP protocol (of which ICMP is a subset). Even so, the actual IP address to flood (the address of the victim's connection) is frequently obtained by looking at the victim's user information (e.g. through the /whois or /dns command) on the IRC network.

Invite flood
Sending disruptive amounts of invites to a certain channel.

Example of a message flood using over 50 clones.

Message flood
Sending massive amounts of private messages to the victim, mainly from different connections called clones (see below). Since some clients separate the private conversations into another window, each new message could open a new window for every new user a message is received from. This is exploitable by sending messages from multiple names, causing the target client to open many new windows and potentially swamping the user with boxes. Sometimes the easiest way to close all the windows is to restart the IRC client, although scripts (client extensions) exist to 'validate' unknown nicknames before receiving messages from them.

Notice flood
Similar to the message, but uses the "notice" command.

Nick flood
Changing the nick as fast as possible, thus disrupting conversation in the channel.

Clones

Abusers do not typically flood from their own nicknames, because of the following reasons:

They can easily be banned from the server or network by administrators ('IRCops,' 'ServerOPs' or 'SOPs'😉,
Channel bans by operators ('ChanOPs' or 'OPs'😉,
From one user the flood is often not effective (the limits apply to the attacker as well).

Instead clones are used, which are script or program controlled clients, primarily to abuse others. When this method is used, it becomes easier to attack a user using many clones at the same time. Generally, the more clones an attacker has, the greater the chance of an attack succeeding. However the maximum connections from any one IP address are generally limited by the IRC network (either at the IRCD level or the services level).

One common way to increase the number of clones is by using open proxies. Usually, these proxies are SOCKS or Squid-based, which support IRC connections by default. If one has a list of open proxies, he can use them to connect his clones through them to various IRC servers. Alternatively, compromised systems can be used to make the connections.

To prevent this, some IRC servers[1] are configured to check common proxy ports of the clienst at the very beginning of the connection. If a successful proxy request can be done, it immediately drops the user (or clone). Many other IRC networks[2][3][4][5][6][7] use a separate proxy scanner like BOPM[8] that scans users as they join the network and kills or G-lines any users it detects an open proxy on. However, this offers no protection against compromised systems or proxies on non-standard ports (a full 65535 port scan isn't prototypically feasible both for performance reasons and because it risks setting off Intrusion Detection Systems), so most networks that do port scans also check if the connecting client is listed in specific DNSBLs like the TOR DNSBL.[9]
Flood protection
This section does not cite any references (sources). Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012)

Almost every IRC client offers some kind of flood protection. These protections are based on the built-in "ignore" feature, which means that a given incoming message, CTCP, invitation, etc. will be blocked if the sender's hostmask matches any of the masks are defined in the ignore list. This is useful as few IRC networks implement the 'silence' command to reject messages by the server. In other words, every message will be posted to the correspondent user, whether it is a normal message or its content is intentionally malicious.

Many clients also limit the number of replies that can be sent in response to any incoming traffic from the network thus avoiding hitting the excess flood limit.
Firewalls

Many users believe that installing a firewall will protect them against these attacks. However, most firewalls do not protect against application-layer denial-of-service attack.
Server-side

Certain IRC server packages, such as Charybdis and ircd-seven, provide a usermode (+g) which filters private messages on the server- side. A message recipient is notified of the first message, and can then choose to whitelist the sender on a session basis. This protects a client from attempts to flood it off the server.
See also

Computer security
Smurf attack
WinNuke

Notes

":: www.undernet.org - welcome to the undernet IRC network". undernet.org.
http://proxyscan.freenode.net/
http://irc.netsplit.de/networks/EsperNet/
"OFTC - FAQ/IRC_Related_Questions". oftc.net.
http://wiki.blitzed.org/Bans%2C_kills_and_K:_lines#K:_lined_by_Blitzed_OPM_.28BOPM.29
"Rizon Abuse". rizon.net.
chat.stratics.com/irc-proxyscan.html
Do a "/whois BOPM" on OFTC or Blitzed, for example.

"sectoor - Server, Domains, Housing und Hosting - security, leading to success". sectoor.de.

References
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2009)

Pioch, Nicolas (1993-02-28). "A short IRC primer". Retrieved 2009-05-25.
"Logging and Reporting IRC Abuses". Retrieved 2009-05-25.
Brinton, Aaron (August 1997). "IRC Operators Guide". Retrieved 2009-05-25.
Powers, Ray (1998-07-30). "The myths of opers....". Retrieved 2009-05-25.
Reed, Darren (May 1992). "A Discussion on Computer Network Conferencing: 5.2.6 Network Friendliness". Rfc1324 (IETF). Retrieved 2009-05-25.
Oikarinen, Jarkko; Reed, Darren (May 1993). "Internet Relay Chat Protocol: 8.10 Flood control of clients". Rfc1459 (IETF). Retrieved 2009-05-25.
Kalt, Christophe (April 2000). "Internet Relay Chat: Server Protocol: 5.8 Flood control of clients". Rfc2813 (IETF). Retrieved 2009-05-25.
Mutton, Paul (2004-07-27). IRC Hacks (1st ed.). Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media. pp. 302, 98, 134, 170 – 172, 268 – 269, 300. ISBN 0-596-00687-X.
Grimes, Roger A. (August 2001). Malicious Mobile Code: Virus Protection for Windows. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media. pp. 188, 239 – 240, 242 – 243. ISBN 1-56592-682-X.
(anonymous) (June 1997). Maximum Security: A Hacker's Guide to Protecting Your Internet Site and Network. SAMS Publishing. pp. 140 – 141. ISBN 1-57521-268-4.
Crystal, David (2006-09-18). Language and the Internet (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 160. ISBN 0-521-86859-9.
Rheingold, Howard (October 1993). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier (1st ed.)....

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http://www.peoplespharmacy.com/2012/07/22/why-does-soap-soothe-nighttime-leg-cramps/

Why Does Soap Soothe Nighttime Leg Cramps?

Is there a scientific hypothesis on why a bar of soap kept in bed may relieve some people's nighttime leg cramps?
Joe Graedon July 22, 2012 Home Remedies 224 Comments
bars of soap
The following hypothesis was contributed by Derek H. Page and Hugh Smailes:

Several years ago, Ann Landers raised a provocative question in her column: does soap at the foot of the bed cure night-time leg cramps? The consensus in the medical community is no: there is no conceivable mechanism by which it could, so any relief derived from this procedure must be due to the placebo effect. In other words, it’s all in the mind.

But if it is indeed a placebo effect, it’s a remarkably strong one. Many people who have suffered for months, if not years, from painful, nocturnal cramps in their legs and feet have found immediate and long-lasting relief just by slipping a thin, innocent bar of soap beneath the sheets. Some even report relief although they were unaware that a bar of soap had been snuck into bed.

Likewise, others whose cramps have mysteriously returned have been nonplussed until they later discover that their bars of soap have fallen from the bed. From the point of view of those who, like us, are trying to solve this mystery, it is fortunate that several websites (including this one) have maintained reports of this unusual treatment and its results.

We decided that although these data were anecdotal, and therefore suspect, we would treat them as if they were scientifically valid, and use them to try to develop an explanation for soap’s seemingly helpful effects. But as soon as we started reading the literature, we realized what an enormous task we had undertaken. The anecdotal literature is vast, and frustratingly contradictory.

Nevertheless, we decided to continue, recognizing that any explanation we produced would remain an untested hypothesis. It would require testing by others before it could be elevated to the status of a theory. We decided to condense the relevant literature down to a few points on which there is general agreement. Here are the main relevant observations taken from the anecdotal evidence:

It seems to work for many people. Soap in the bed appears to alleviate nocturnal leg cramps.
Relief is immediate and sustained.
Some people report that soap does not work. It appears either to work consistently and well or not at all. There are few cases of partial success.
After a few months, a bar of soap is no longer effective for preventing cramps. It must be replaced. Old soap can be rejuvenated by scoring or shaving it to produce fresh surfaces.
Some subjects have placed the soap between the sheets, and some have placed it under the bottom sheet. Either or both of these methods work.
Some subjects report that direct physical contact between the subject and the soap is desirable, but few claim it is essential.

From these observations, certain conclusions may be drawn. For our purposes, number 4 on the above list is the most relevant. Apparently, the phenomenon can be switched off and on: off when the soap bar ages, and on again by scoring the soap. But why? What is it that’s being switched off and on? We hypothesize that it is an as-yet-unidentified molecule present in the soap. This might sound like a stretch, but in fact, this “switching” mechanism is consistent with what we know about the structure of soap.

Soap is a water-swollen gel. When it’s purchased, its moisture content is generally somewhere between 5 to 15 percent. Soap is very porous, and when it’s swollen with water, it permits small, dispersed molecules to pass through it. But when it has aged, its surface dries out, and its surface is a lot less porous, so small molecules can no longer pass through it.

We think that an unknown molecule that diffuses out of the soap gel is responsible for alleviating cramps. As long as the bar is emitting this molecule, the cramps are suppressed. An old bar of soap ceases to emit the molecule as the surface dries out and its resistance to diffusion rises. That’s when the cramps return. The bar can emit again–and once again eliminate cramps–after new, moister, fresher surfaces are exposed by scraping the bar of soap.

From items number 5 and 6 from our list above, we know that direct contact between soap and skin can be helpful, but it does not seem to be essential. This suggests that our unknown molecule is volatile, capable of diffusing in air: i.e., that it can pass from a bar of soap to your cramping leg in a manner similar to the way a drug is transmitted through a skin patch.

After generating this hypothesis, we took a careful look at the list of ingredients on a package of soap, and we found only one possible source of small molecules of a volatile compound: the fragrance. Nearly all soaps contain fragrances or perfumes. Certainly those mentioned in the anecdotal evidence do. And what perfumes are used in soaps? That’s generally top-secret information, held close to the vest by soap manufacturers. But we do know that most soaps contain esters and oils, such as carrot oil and lavender oil (or their synthetic doppelgangers). These compounds are vasodilators.Like the ester nitroglycerin, which is used to alleviate pain caused by angina, they enlarge blood vessels.

The quantity of perfume transmitted to the skin may be small, but it appears to be enough to dilate blood vessels and prevent cramps. We know, of course, that the small, mobile molecules in the fragrances of soap diffuse through its gel to the surface and evaporate. We know because we can smell them. And when you score an old bar of soap, you can smell it all over again, just as strongly as when you first took it from its paper wrapper.

Before it can be accepted, every new hypothesis has to be tested. We would welcome the findings of anyone who might want to test our hypothesis, and we would be eager to see the results. To the research community, which is convinced that ion imbalance is responsible for the initiation of cramps, we say that this suggestion doesn’t challenge that. There is ample room here for research by the academic and medical communities. Our proposed mechanism will surely be under attack within the week. Yet it fits much of the data so well that we suspect that whatever future research results are obtained the final conclusion in this matter will include much of what is written here.

Finally, it has not escaped our notice that if this explanation is correct, it may have applications beyond the alleviation of leg cramps–specifically, but not only, in the management of pain from other conditions. We hope that having proposed this scientifically viable explanation for the phenomenon of soap alleviating leg cramps will validate the experiences of those that have benefitted from this “treatment,” and open this area of inquiry to further medical and academic research. We do not claim originality for every element of this proposal. But we do claim originality for putting together the pieces of this puzzle.

To those who have been unable to get relief with the soap treatment (i.e., those mentioned in item 3 Above), we suggest you persevere and try a different soap with a stronger scent, potentially scoring it. You might try searching the internet, or this website, to see if there’s a brand others have had good luck with. The fresh, unwrapped bar of soap should then be placed between the sheets, preferably in a location where the soles of your feet can touch it. And please report back to us whether or not it works–we’d be very interested to hear.

Dr. Derek H. Page, (Baie D’Urfe, Quebec, Canada) and Hugh Smailes (Apollo Bay, Victoria, Australia) As a final disclaimer: we are not physicians and have no health expertise, as our critics will doubtless be happy to affirm.

Kegel exercise
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kegel exercise
Intervention
Kegel exercises diagram.png
Kegel exercises diagram

Pelvic floor exercise, also known as Kegel exercise (/ˈkeɪɡəl/), consists of repeatedly contracting and relaxing the muscles that form part of the pelvic floor, now sometimes colloquially referred to as the "Kegel muscles". Several tools exist to help with these exercises, although various studies debate the relative effectiveness of different tools versus traditional exercises.[1][2] Exercises are usually done to reduce urinary incontinence[3] (especially after childbirth)[4] and reduce premature ejaculatory occurrences in men,[5] as well as to increase the size and intensity of erections.[6] They were first described in 1948 by Arnold Kegel.

Contents

1 Health effects for women
1.1 Urinary incontinence
1.2 Pelvic prolapse
1.3 Sexual function
2 Health effects for men
2.1 Urinary incontinence
2.2 Sexual function
3 Mechanism of action
4 Pelvic toning devices
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

Health effects for women

Factors such as pregnancy, childbirth, aging, being overweight, and abdominal surgery such as cesarean section, often result in the weakening of the pelvic muscles. This can be assessed by either digital examination of vaginal pressure or using a Kegel perineometer. Kegel exercises are useful in regaining pelvic floor muscle strength in such cases.
Urinary incontinence

Pelvic floor exercises are recommended for women with urinary incontinence of the stress, urge, or mixed types.[7] There is tentative evidence that biofeedback may give added benefit when used with pelvic floor muscle training.[8]
Pelvic prolapse

There is some evidence showing a positive effect of pelvic floor exercises on the symptoms of prolapse and its severity.[9]
Sexual function

In 1952, Dr. Kegel published a report in which he stated that the women doing this exercise were attaining orgasm more easily, more frequently and more intensely: "it has been found that dysfunction of the pubococcygeus exists in many women complaining of lack of vaginal feeling during coitus and that in these cases sexual appreciation can be increased by restoring function of the pubococcygeus."[10]
Health effects for men

Though most commonly used by women, men can also use Kegel exercises. Kegel exercises are employed to strengthen the pubococcygeal muscle and other muscles of the pelvic diaphragm. Kegels can help men achieve stronger erections, maintain healthy hips, and gain greater control over ejaculation.[6] The objective of this may be similar to that of the exercise in women with weakened pelvic floor: to increase bladder and bowel control and sexual function.
Urinary incontinence

After a prostatectomy there is no clear evidence that teaching pelvic floor exercises alters the risk of urinary incontinence (leakage of urine).[11]
Sexual function

A paper found that pelvic floor exercises could help restore erectile function in men with erectile dysfunction.[12] There are said to be significant benefits for the problem of premature ejaculation from having more muscular control of the pelvis.[13]
Mechanism of action

The aim of Kegel exercises is to improve muscle tone by strengthening the pubococcygeus muscles of the pelvic floor. Kegel is a popular prescribed exercise for pregnant women to prepare the pelvic floor for physiological stresses of the later stages of pregnancy and childbirth. Kegel exercises are said to be good for treating vaginal prolapse[14] and preventing uterine prolapse[15] in women and for treating prostate pain and swelling resulting from benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatitis in men. Kegel exercises may be beneficial in treating urinary incontinence in both men and women.[3] Kegel exercises may also increase sexual gratification, allowing women to complete pompoir and aid in reducing premature ejaculation[5] in men. The many actions performed by Kegel muscles include holding in urine and avoiding defecation. Reproducing this type of muscle action can strengthen the Kegel muscles. The action of slowing or stopping the flow of urine may be used as a test of correct pelvic floor exercise technique.[16]

It is now known that the components of levator ani (the pelvic diaphragm), namely pubococcygeus, puborectalis and ileococcygeus, contract and relax as one muscle. Hence, pelvic floor exercises involve the entire levator ani rather than pubococcygeus alone. Pelvic floor exercises may be of benefit in cases of fecal incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse conditions e.g. rectal prolapse.[17]
Pelvic toning devices
A Kegel exerciser

A pelvic toning device (generically referred to as a Kegel exerciser,[18] pelvic floor toner, pelvic floor muscle toner or pelvic toner) is a medical or pseudo-medical device designed to help women exercise their pelvic floor muscle and improve the muscle tone of the pubococcygeal or vaginal muscle.

The original pelvic toning device was the perineometer, invented by Arnold Kegel to facilitate the measurement of the strength of the pubococcygeus muscle when it was resting and being actively squeezed - sometimes referred to as the Kegel tone.

His device was a combination of rubber balloons and tubes that measured pressure using a column of water. It was neither easy to use nor portable.

During the latter part of the 20th century, a number of medical and pseudo-medical devices were developed and launched on to the market. Some of these are used in a clinical setting, but most are designed for women to use in the privacy of their own home.

Pelvic toning devices fall into a number of different types:

barbells, vaginal weights or cones designed to be held in the vagina. The action of passively/actively retaining the device internally is supposed to improve muscle tone. Barbells are made of smooth, polished solid stainless steel, cylindrical in shape, with a rounded bulge at each end. They typically weigh one pound (454 g) and measure approximately 6 3⁄4 inches (17 cm) in length with a diameter of one inch (2.5 cm) at the widest part. Being made of stainless steel, vaginal barbells are nonporous and can be wiped clean with a cloth moistened with mild soap and water.
electro-stimulation or TENS devices that administer an electric current through an internal probe. The current stimulates the adjacent muscles to twitch.
rubber resistance balls and indicators. These devices provide a nominal resistance to squeeze against. An advantage of rubber bulb devices is that they provide visual feedback (via a gauge) of how much pressure is being applied.
progressive resistance vaginal exercisers with springs are the only devices that meet all of Kegel's criteria. They provide a biofeedback that the correct muscles are being engaged and are capable of fulfilling the fundamentals of an exercise regimen by applying a variable and increasing resistive force to maximize the exercise effort.

Regular Kegel exercises should achieve tangible results (such as less frequent urine leakage) within about 8 to 12 weeks. For some women, the improvement could be dramatic.[19] Unfortunately, there are a number of products on the market that have no impact at all on the pubococcygeus muscle. If the PC muscle is not engaged then it is impossible to improve the muscle tone or strengthen the muscle. Devices that are used externally, for example between the thighs, may exercise the adductor muscle but do nothing for the pelvic floor.

Clinical research published in the British Medical Journal [1] compared pelvic floor exercises, vaginal weights and electro-stimulation in a randomised trial. The research recommended that pelvic floor exercise should be the first choice of treatment for genuine stress incontinence because simple exercises proved to be far more effective than electro-stimulation or vaginal cones.

This situation was confirmed in a comprehensive review of the treatment of stress incontinence published in the British Journal of Urology International in 2010.[2] The report author noted that electrical stimulation devices and weighted vaginal cones are not recommended by the UK National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) and "are not universally advocated by clinicians as they have yet to produce sufficient evidence of efficacy".

Clinical trials[2] of a progressive resistance vaginal exerciser concluded that the device was as effective as supervised pelvic floor muscle training, the gold standard treatment of the UK NHS where patients are referred to a specialist continence advisor for one on one training over a three-month period. The report also noted that the device can help overcome the fundamental weaknesses associated with pelvic floor muscle exercises (PFME), i.e. poor training, lack of patient confidence and poor compliance with the exercise recommendations.

Key points noted by the research are that:

the device gives "confidence to women that they were correctly contracting their pelvic floor, and this may be helpful encouragement when a woman is starting out on a regimen of PFME".
the biofeedback given by the device "may be particularly helpful to demonstrate to the woman that she is carrying out the PFME appropriately".
the device is particularly relevant to those women "who do not consult their physician and wish to maintain confidentiality regarding their SUI symptom".

A progressive resistance vaginal exerciser is the only form of pelvic toning device available on prescription in the UK to women presenting with symptoms of urinary stress incontinence or pelvic floor weakness.
See also

Ben Wa balls
Hypopressive exercise
Taoist sexual practices
Vacuum exercise
Vaginal cone
Vaginal weightlifting

References

"Single blind, randomised control...

I'm in the process of rereading all the "long" responses to see if any would qualify as an entry in the 2016 Prose contest. I will keep you all atop of my findings.

Urinary incontinence (UI), also known as involuntary urination, is any leakage of urine. It is a common and distressing problem, which may have a large impact on quality of life. Urinary incontinence is often a result of an underlying medical condition but is under-reported to medical practitioners.[1] Enuresis is often used to refer to urinary incontinence primarily in children, such as nocturnal enuresis (bed wetting).[2]

There are four main types of incontinence:[3]

Urge incontinence due to an overactive bladder
Stress incontinence due to poor closure of the bladder
Overflow incontinence due to either poor bladder contraction or blockage of the urethra
Functional incontinence due to medications or health problems making it difficult to reach the bathroom

Treatments include pelvic floor muscle training, bladder training, and electrical stimulation.[4] The benefit of medications is small and long term safety is unclear.[4]
The most common types of urinary incontinence in women are stress urinary incontinence and urge urinary incontinence. Women with both problems have mixed urinary incontinence. Stress urinary incontinence is caused by loss of support of the urethra which is usually a consequence of damage to pelvic support structures as a result of childbirth. It is characterized by leaking of small amounts of urine with activities which increase abdominal pressure such as coughing, sneezing and lifting. Additionally, frequent exercise in high-impact activities can cause athletic incontinence to develop. Urge urinary incontinence is caused by uninhibited contractions of the detrusor muscle . It is characterized by leaking of large amounts of urine in association with insufficient warning to get to the bathroom in time.

Polyuria (excessive urine production) of which, in turn, the most frequent causes are: uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, primary polydipsia (excessive fluid drinking), central diabetes insipidus and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.[5] Polyuria generally causes urinary urgency and frequency, but doesn't necessarily lead to incontinence.
Enlarged prostate is the most common cause of incontinence in men after the age of 40; sometimes prostate cancer may also be associated with urinary incontinence. Moreover drugs or radiation used to treat prostate cancer can also cause incontinence.[6]
Disorders like multiple sclerosis, spina bifida, Parkinson's disease, strokes and spinal cord injury can all interfere with nerve function of the bladder.
Continence and micturition involve a balance between urethral closure and detrusor muscle activity. Urethral pressure normally exceeds bladder pressure, resulting in urine remaining in the bladder. The proximal urethra and bladder are both within the pelvis. Intra abdominal pressure increases (from coughing and sneezing) are transmitted to both urethra and bladder equally, leaving the pressure differential unchanged, resulting in continence. Normal voiding is the result of changes in both of these pressure factors: urethral pressure falls and bladder pressure rises.

The body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the urinary bladder, a balloon-like organ. The bladder connects to the urethra, the tube through which urine leaves the body.

During urination, detrusor muscles in the wall of the bladder contract, forcing urine out of the bladder and into the urethra. At the same time, sphincter muscles surrounding the urethra relax, letting urine pass out of the body. Incontinence will occur if the bladder muscles suddenly contract (detrusor muscle) or muscles surrounding the urethra suddenly relax (sphincter muscles).

The ancestor of our humble letter Y is the twentieth letter of the Greek alphabet, upsilon, which was adopted into the Latin alphabet around 2,000 years ago to represent the “y” sound (or the voiced palatal approximant, to give it its proper name) found in some Ancient Greek loanwords. To speakers of Romance languages, like French and Spanish, this “y” sound was new, and so the classical origin of the newly-imported Y was retained in the letter’s name (i-grec in French, i-griega in Spanish, ípsilon in Portuguese, and so on). But as a Germanic language, English already had a “y” sound, and so Y quickly found a home for itself at the tail end of our alphabet—by the early Middle Ages, it had firmly established itself as the go-to choice of letter for scribes wanting to represented the “y” sound in English, ousting the ancient letter yogh, ȝ, which had until then been used to represent the same sound, from our alphabet.

As a relative latecomer to the English alphabet, however, Y has never been a particularly common letter: despite being found in a number of the most frequent words in the language (by, you, your, they, say), you can still only expect it to account for a little over 1.5 percent of all written language, and roughly the same proportion of the words in a dictionary—including the 40 useful Y-words listed here.
1. YAAGER

An old word from the far north of Scotland for an especially strong man. It’s probably derived from yoker, another name for a workhorse.
2. YAFFLE

To yaffle is to eat or drink messily, or to talk incoherently. It’s also another name for the green woodpecker, which supposedly makes a “yaffling” call.
3. YAGIMENT

A state of excitement.
4. YAHRZEIT

Derived via Yiddish from the German for “year-time,” a yahrzeit is an anniversary observed on the date of a person’s death.
5. YAKKA

Australian slang term for hard work, derived from an Aboriginal word.
6. YALLACRACK

An old Scots English word for a loud noise, or a particularly noisy argument or fight.
7. YAM

As a verb, yam can be used to mean “to eat appreciatively.”
8. YAPLY

To do something yaply is to do it nimbly or agilely.
9. YARD-OF-PUMPWATER

The perfect word from 19th century slang for a tall, lanky man…
10. YARN-CHOPPER

…followed by a 19th century nickname for someone who talks very verbosely, or a journalist who concocts or sensationalizes their stories. Also called a yarn-slinger.
11. YAUCHLE

To shuffle along or walk in an awkward manner.
12. YAW-YAW

Coined by Charles Dickens in Hard Times, to yaw-yaw is to talk haughtily or affectedly.
13. YAY-NAY

18th-19th century slang for an empty-headed person—literally someone who can only give “yes” or “no” answers.
14. YEAR-MIND

An old 15th century word for an anniversary or memorial.
15. YEGG

Supposedly (according to the Oxford English Dictionary) derived from the surname of some notorious American criminal, in early 1900s slang a yegg or yeggman was a burglar or safebreaker.
16. YELLOW-BACK

In Victorian England, some book publishers began mass-producing cheap, sensationalist novels to compete with the increasingly popular penny-dreadfuls. The books—totaling more than 1,000 different titles—were printed and bound in bright mustard-yellow jackets to attract readers’ attention, and were put on sale not in book stores but as impulse buys in tobacconists, train stations, and other everyday locations. Although the yellow-back publishing trend didn’t last, the name has remained in use in English to describe any sensationalist, mass-produced, and often poor-quality novel.
17. YELLOW-BEAL

An old English dialect word for someone who goes fishing, but comes home empty-handed.
18. YELLOW-YOWLING

In 18th century English, if you were yellow-yowling then you were sickly looking.
19. YEPSEN

The “bowl” you make cupping your hands together is called a gowpen, and the amount you can hold in it—in other words, a double handful—is a yepsen, or a yepsintle.
20. YERTDRIFT

A yertdrift is a snow storm accompanied by a very strong wind, which causes the snow to drift. The yert– part is probably a corruption of “earth,” referring to the downward fall of snow.
21. YESTERTEMPEST

Yesterday and yesteryear aren’t the only yester words in the English language. You can also talk about yestermorn, yester-afternoon, yestereve or yestere’en, yesternight and, should the need ever arise, yestertempest—the last storm.
22. YEVEROUS

If you’re yever then you’re greedy or covetous. If you’re yeverous, then you’re eager or impetuous.
23. YIDDLE

An old Scots word essentially meaning “to play idly on a musical instrument”—especially when the noise you’re getting out of it isn’t particularly musical…
24. YIM

To break something into fragments.
25. YIRD-HUNGER

A particularly voracious appetite. Literally means “a desire to own your own land.”
26. YLEPHOBIA

Also called hylophobia, ylephobia is an irrational fear or dislike of wooden objects. Figuratively, it’s also used to refer to a hatred of materialism.
27. YOGIBOGEYBOX

Coined by James Joyce in Ulysses (1922), a yogibogeybox is all the paraphernalia carried by a spiritualist.
28. YOJAN

The word yojan or yojana was borrowed into English in the 18th century from Hindi, but it derives ultimately from a Sanskrit word meaning “yoking.” Literally, it refers to the distance a yoked animal can be expected to walk before needing to rest or be unyoked—but according to Noah Webster, you can use it as just another name for a distance of five miles. Webster’s definition was probably based on an earlier explanation of the term that stated “the circumference of the Earth is equal to 5,059 yojunus,” which given a circumference of 24,901 miles makes one yojan equal to 4.92 miles. Other dictionaries are much less precise however, with the Oxford English Dictionary pointing out that, given the word’s literal meaning, in its native India it’s variously used to refer to a distance of anything from four to ten miles.
29. YOKE-FELLOW

A yoke-fellow or yoke-mate is a 16th century word for a co-worker or colleague, or someone who is involved alongside you in an arduous or unpleasant task, whereas…
30. YOKE-DEVIL

…a yoke-devil is someone with whom you’re up to no good. Shakespeare coined the term in Henry V.
31. YONDERWARD

Yonder—as in “yonder breaks a new and glorious morn”—is an old Middle English word essentially meaning “at that place,” or “over there.” As well as heading yonderward (“in that direction&rdquo😉, you can also talk about the yondermost (“most distant&rdquo😉 place, and can do something yonderway (“like that” or “in that way&rdquo😉. Yonderly is an old English dialect word meaning “sullen” or “melancholy.”
32. YORKROOM

The unploughed, overgrown edge of a field is the yorkroom.
33. YORKSHIRE

In the 17th century, the people of England’s largest county (now divided into four smaller counties or “ridings&rdquo😉 gained an unjust reputation for being penny-pinching and dishonest. As a result, to Yorkshire someone came to mean to cheat or dupe them; a Yorkshire bite is a particularly cunning ploy; and, in 19th century slang, a Yorkshire compliment was “a gift useless to the giver and not wanted by the receiver.”
34. YOUF

To yarr is to bark or snarl like a dog, and to yawl is to howl like a dog. But when a dog barks in a half-suppressed way, it youfs.
35. YOUNKER

A fashionable, or inexperienced, young man.
36. YPSILIFORM

Derived from upsilon, something described as ypsiliform is Y-shaped.
37. YULE-HOLE

The hole you have to move your belt to after Christmas dinner, or any equally enormous meal? That’s the Yule-hole.
38. YUMP

When a car leaves the ground when it crests a hill at speed, it yumps.
39. YUMPLING

Grumbling or complaining.
40. YUNK

When a horse yunks it tries to unseat its rider. Derived from that, yunk-a-cuddie is an old game similar to leapfrog.

i'll see yer yulehole and raise you two...

The "Impossible challenge" has survived since "17 Dec '13 13:15"......

Originally posted by Kewpie
The "Impossible challenge" has survived since "17 Dec '13 13:15"......

That's not possible.

6 Tasty Pasta Recipes With Unusual Ingredients


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6 Tasty Pasta Recipes With Unusual Ingredients

Catherine Northington
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October 05, 2014

According to the International Pasta Organization, the average American consumes around 19.4 pounds of pasta every year. Pasta-based dishes are quick and versatile, making them one of the most prominent mainstays in international cuisine.

As delicious as pasta may be, it can still get a little boring if you don’t mix up your ingredients everyone once in a while. Sometimes, plain old spaghetti and marinara just won’t cut it — and that’s when you’re required to think outside of the box. Shake up your dinnertime routine by serving one of these 6 recipes — each featuring an atypical pasta dish ingredient — for dinner.

1. Pasta With Yogurt Sauce

This pasta dinner is a light, Middle Eastern-inspired change of pace. The recipe drapes a creamy yogurt sauce over your favorite pasta noodles. Best of all, it lends a creaminess to the dish without adding a high fat content to go along with it, and also provides your meal with a generous amount of protein, which will leave you feeling fuller for a longer time. This dish from All Recipes takes about 30 minutes to complete and yields 6-8 servings.

Ingredients:

1 (16-ounce) package pasta
1 tablespoon butter
2 cups plain yogurt
4 cloves garlic, minced
1 teaspoon salt
2 tablespoons chopped fresh parsley
3 tablespoons pine nuts (optional)
2 tablespoons butter (optional)

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Directions: Cook the pasta in a large pot of boiling salted water until al dente. Using a mortar and pestle, mash the salt and garlic cloves together into a paste. Warm the yogurt slightly in a sauce pan. Remove a small amount of warmed yogurt from the pan, and stir together with the garlic paste. Stir this mixture into the remaining yogurt.

Drain the pasta, and rinse in cold water. Place in a casserole or deep serving dish, toss with 1 tablespoon butter or margarine. Toss with half of the garlic-yogurt sauce. Spread the remaining sauce over the pasta. Garnish with the parsley.

For a very special dish, brown the pine nuts in 2 tablespoons butter or margarine. Pour over the parsley. Serve immediately.
Source: Thinkstock

Source: Thinkstock
2. Spaghetti With Strawberries

Fruit and pasta are rarely seen together, but the combination can provide your standard spaghetti dinner with an exciting twist. The recipe, which is posted on Pop Sugar and comes via the Manhattan restaurant Sfoglia, combines the sweetness of strawberries with the tartness of an aged balsamic vinegar to create a unique and complex dish. This recipe takes about 30 minutes to complete and yields 4 servings.

Ingredients:

1 pound good-quality dried spaghetti
4 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil, plus more for finishing
1 pound ripe strawberries, cleaned and halved
2 tablespoons good aged (eight-year-old) balsamic vinegar
1 cup San Marzano tomato purée
4 ounces reserved pasta water
Sea salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste
Freshly grated parmesan, for serving (optional)

Directions: Cook the pasta in rapidly boiling salted water until al dente. In a large sauté pan, warm the olive oil and half of the strawberries over medium heat. Cook until the strawberries start to release juice. Add balsamic and reduce by half.

Add tomato purée, the rest of the strawberries, and the reserved pasta water, and reduce by half again until the sauce thickens. Season to taste. Toss with spaghetti. Finish with olive oil and black pepper.
Source: Thinkstock

Source: Thinkstock
3. Chocolate Pasta With Chocolate Hazelnut Cream Sauce, White Chocolate Shavings, and Fresh Berries

Up your pasta-making game with the incorporation of hazelnut, chocolate, and berry flavors to this dish made from scratch. This crunchy-creamy mix of sophisticated, slightly sweetened flavors creates a dish with unbeatable texture and character. This recipe from Cooking Channel TV takes about an hour and 5 minutes to complete to complete and yields 6 entrée-sized servings.

Ingredients:

Chocolate Pasta

2 ½ cups all-purpose flour, plus more if needed
¼ cup unsweetened cocoa powder, preferably Dutch-processed
¼ cup powdered sugar
Pinch salt
3 large eggs, beaten
1 tablespoon chocolate syrup
1 teaspoon vanilla extract

Chocolate Hazelnut Cream Sauce

1 cup heavy cream
1 cup chocolate hazelnut spread, such as Nutella
1 pinch salt
2 pints raspberries, for garnish
Crème fraîche, for garnish
White chocolate shavings, for garnish
Chopped, skinless, toasted hazelnuts, for garnish

Directions: For the pasta, sift together the flour, cocoa, and sugar. Add a pinch salt and mound the flour mixture in a large bowl or on a clean work surface. Hollow out the center, making a well in the middle of the flour with steep sides. Break the eggs into the well. Add the chocolate syrup and vanilla. Gently mix together with a fork. Gradually start incorporating the flour by pulling in the flour from the sides of the well. As you incorporate more of the flour, the dough will start to take shape. Once it gets thick, you can use a spatula to incorporate the rest of the flour.

If the dough is too dry, add a little water. If the dough is too wet or sticky, add a little flour. Once the dough comes together, knead the dough on a clean work surface until it becomes smooth, about 8 minutes. Shape into a disc, cover with plastic wrap, and let rest in the fridge, 20 to 30 minutes.

Divide your rested dough into quarters and work with one piece at a time, covering your other pieces to keep them moist. Flour each piece lightly, shape it into a rectangular shape, and put it through a pasta sheeter attachment, starting at the widest setting. Run the dough once through the largest setting, fold it into thirds, and run it through one more time. Then run the pasta through the sheeting attachment once on every number, stopping at 5 or 6, depending on how thick you would like it. Lightly flour the rolled out pasta sheet and fold in half. Take your chef knife and cut ribbons about a ½-inch thick, then unravel the pasta ribbons and place on a floured baking sheet to keep from sticking.

For the sauce, bring the heavy cream to a simmer in a heavy-bottomed saucepan over medium-high heat and stir in the chocolate-hazelnut spread. Add a pinch salt and continue whisking until the sauce is creamy. Remove from the heat and reserve. Cook the chocolate pasta in a large pot of boiling water, 3 minutes. Immediately remove the pasta from the water and toss gently with the sauce and a little of the pasta cooking water to help with the consistency.

Mound the pasta and sauce on dessert plates and garnish with the fresh berries, a dollop of creme fraiche, white chocolate shavings, and skinless toasted chopped hazelnuts, to garnish.

Source: iStock

Source: iStock
4. Linguine With Colatura

According to NPR, the fermented fish sauce colatura dates back to fermented garum, a pungent fish condiment dating back to the Roman Empire. Today’s colatura is produced from salted anchovies and adds a distinct, complex flavor to traditional Italian dishes. This recipe from The New York Times combines this exotic flavor with lemon, garlic, and red pepper to create a powerful pasta dish that your family will love. The dish takes 20 minutes to complete and yields 4-6 servings. If it’s not in your local market, try looking for colatura di alici at Italian shops and online.

Ingredients:

1 pound linguine or spaghetti
Salt
6 tablespoons colatura (see note)
2 tablespoons freshly squeezed lemon juice, more to taste
1 tablespoon packed grated lemon zest (from 1 ½ lemons)
2 teaspoons minced garlic
½ teaspoon crushed red chili pepper flakes, more to taste
Freshly ground black pepper to taste
6 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil
½ cup minced fresh parsley
Coarse sea salt (optional), to taste

Directions: Cook pasta in salted boiling water according to package directions until al dente. In a large bowl, combine colatura, lemon juice, zest, garlic, chili pepper, and black pepper. Drain pasta and add it to bowl, tossing well. Drizzle in olive oil and parsley, toss to combine, and taste. Add salt if desired. Serve hot or at room temperature.

Source: iStock

Source: iStock
5. Chicken and Blueberry Pasta Salad

This light pasta salad recipe is a quick way to throw leftover chicken and blueberries together to create a delicious and unusual meal for the family. If you’d like to prepare it ahead of time, add everything except the blueberries and dressing to the pasta salad, then cover and refrigerate for 1 day. Toss remaining ingredients into the mix before serving. This recipe from Eating Well takes 30 minutes to complete and yields 6 servings (each about 1 ½ cups in size).

Ingredients:

1 pound boneless, skinless chicken breast, trimmed of fat
8 ounces whole-wheat fusilli or radiatore
3 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
1 large shallot, thinly sliced
⅓ cup reduced-sodium chicken broth
⅓ cup crumbled feta cheese
3 tablespoons lime juice
1 cup fresh blueberries
1 tablespoon chopped fresh thyme
1 teaspoon freshly grated lime zest
¼ teaspoon salt

Directions: Place chicken in a skillet or saucepan and add enough water to cover; bring to a boil. Cover, reduce heat to low, and simmer gently until cooked through and no longer pink in the middle, 10 to 12 minutes. Transfer the chicken to a cutting board to cool. Shred into bite-size strips. Bring a large pot of water to a boil. Cook pasta until just tender, about 9 minutes or according to package directions. Drain. Place in a large bowl.

Meanwhile, place...